READING PASSAGE 1

PASSAGE 1

Read the text and answer questions 1-13

FOOTPRINTS IN THE MUDS OF TIME

The dinosaurs may have risen to power as little as 10,000 years after a major impact.

Everybody knows that the dinosaurs were killed by an asteroid. Something big hit the earth 65 million years ago and, when the dust had fallen, so had the great reptiles. There is thus a nice, if ironic, symmetry in the idea that a similar impact brought about the dinosaurs' rise. That is the thesis proposed by Paul Olsen, of Columbia University, and his colleagues in this week's Science.

Dinosaurs first appeared in the fossil record 230 million years ago, during the Triassic period. But they were mostly small, and they shared the Earth with lots of other sorts of reptile. It was in the subsequent Jurassic, which began 202 million years ago, that they overran the planet and turned into the monsters realistically depicted in modern books and movies. Dr Olsen and his colleagues are not the first to suggest that the dinosaurs inherited the Earth as the result of an asteroid strike. But they are the first to show that the takeover did, indeed, happen in a geological eyeblink.

Dinosaur skeletons are rare. Dinosaur footprints are, however, surprisingly abundant. And the sizes of the prints are as good an indication of the sizes of the beasts as are the skeletons themselves. Dr Olsen and his colleagues, therefore, concentrated on prints, not bones. The prints in question were made in eastern North America, a part of the world full of rift valleys like those in East Africa today. Like the modern African rift valleys, the Triassic/Jurassic American ones contained lakes, and these lakes grew and shrank at regular intervals because of climatic changes. Rocks from this place and period can be dated to within a few thousand years. As a bonus, squishy lake-edge sediments are just the things for recording the tracks of passing animals.

By dividing the labour between themselves, the ten authors of the paper were able to study such tracks at 80 sites and looked at 18 so-called ichnotaxa. These are recognizable types of footprint that cannot be matched precisely with the species of animal that left them. But they can be matched with a general sort of animal, and thus act as an indicator of the fate of that group, even when there are no bones to tell the story.

The findings show that five of the ichnotaxa disappear before the end of the Triassic, and four march confidently across the boundary into the Jurassic. Six, however, vanish at the boundary, or only just splutter across it; and three appear from nowhere, almost as soon as the Jurassic begins.

That boundary itself is suggestive. The first geological indication of the impact that killed the dinosaurs was an unusually high level of iridium in rocks at the end of the Cretaceous, when the beasts disappear from the fossil record. Iridium is normally rare at the earth's surface, but it is more abundant in meteorites. When people began to believe the impact theory, they started looking for other Cretaceous anomalies. One that turned up was a surprising abundance of fern spores in rocks just above the boundary layer - a phenomenon known as a fern spike.

That matched the theory nicely. Many modern ferns are opportunists. They cannot compete against plants with leaves, but if a piece of land is cleared by, say, a volcanic eruption, they are often the first things to set up shop there. An asteroid strike would have scoured much of the earth of its vegetable cover, and provided a paradise for ferns. A fern spike in the rocks is thus a good indication that something terrible has happened.

The surprises are how rapidly the new ichnotaxa appear and how quickly they increase in size. Dr Olsen and his colleagues suggest that the explanation may be a phenomenon called ecological release. This is seen today when reptiles, which in modern times tend to be small creatures, reach islands where they face no competitors. The most spectacular example is on the Indonesian island of Komodo, where local lizards have grown so large that they are often referred to as dragons. The dinosaurs, in other words, could flourish only when the competition had been knocked out.

That leaves the question of where the impact happened. No large hole in the earth's crust seems to be 202 million years old. It may, of course, have been overlooked. Old craters are eroded and buried, and not always easy to find. Alternatively, it may have vanished. Although the continental crust is more or less permanent, the ocean floor is constantly recycled by the tectonic processes that bring about continental drift. There is no ocean floor left that is more than 200 million years old, so a crater that formed in the ocean would have been swallowed up by now.

There is a third possibility, however. This is that the crater is known, but has been misdated. The Manicouagan structure, a crater in Quebec, is thought to be 214 million years old. It is huge - some 100 kilometers across - and seems to be the largest of between three and five craters that formed within a few hours of each other as the lumps of a disintegrated comet hit the Earth one by one. Such an impact would surely have had a perceptible effect on the world, but the rocks from 214 million years ago do not record one. It is possible that Manicouagan has been misdated. That will be the next thing to check.

Questions 1-13

Questions 1-6

Choose YES, NO or NOT GIVEN.

1 There is still doubt about the theory that an asteroid strike killed the dinosaurs.
2 Books and the cinema exaggerate the size of the dinosaurs.
3 Other scientists have rejected Olsen's idea of a sudden dinosaur occupation of the Earth.
4 Dinosaur footprints are found more frequently than dinosaur skeletons.
5 Ichnotaxa offer an exact identification of a dinosaur species.
6 There is evidence that some groups of dinosaur survived from the Triassic period into the Jurassic period.
Questions 7-13

Complete the summary. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

Dr Olsen's group believe that the sudden increase in the size of dinosaurs may have been due to something known as . A current example of this can be found on Komodo Island in Indonesia, where some of the lizards are commonly called because of their size. Apparently, they have grown this big because they do not have any .

According to the writer, there are three possible reasons why we have not found a large hole in the Earth's crust dating back 202 million years. First, it may have been by scientists. Or, it could have ; for example, if the hole had been in the ocean, it would no longer exist because of the that produce continental drift. Thirdly, the hole could still exist but have been .